A Lingual Agnostic Information Retrieval System

The exclusion of monolingual natives from cyberspace is a global socioeconomic and cultural problem. Efforts at addressing this problem have been socioeconomic, culminating in training, empowerment, and digital access with the indelible hurt of language inequities. This paper is aimed at the cyber-inclusion of monolingual natives. Since cyber participation is basically through human interaction with cyber-applications in a human language, encapsulating these applications for interaction in any human language will help evade the hurt of language inequities. Information retrieval system (IRS) remains a fundamental cyber-application. Consequently, adopting the design science research methodology, we introduced a lingual agnostic IRS architecture designed on the principle of transparency on user language detection, information translations, and caching. The detailed design of the architecture was done using the unified modeling language. The designed IRS architecture has been implemented using the agile and component-based software engineering approaches. The resultant lingual agnostic IRS (LAIRS) was evaluated using heuristics and system evaluation methods for parity of language of interaction against the default language and was excellently stable across queries and languages, guaranteeing 86% parity with the default language in the use of other languages for information access and retrieval. Furthermore, it has been shown that LAIRS is the most appropriate IRS to address the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion compared with existing IRSs.


Introduction
Humans are increasingly dependent on the cyberspace (the Internet and web) for information exchange, business transactions, and social interactions.Tis has made the cyberspace an invaluable tool for the survival, competitiveness, and socioeconomic development of individuals, organizations, and nations.Despite the inherent heterogeneous language nature of humans, the contents of the cyberspace remain predominantly presented and preserved in few ofcial United Nations (UN) languages [1][2][3][4].Tis invariably excludes monolingual natives-those that can only read and write in a native language-from participating, contributing, or benefting from the cyberspace which has become an invaluable part of our world, resulting in socioeconomic deprivations and possible extinction of many native languages.
It is important to note that Internet-underpinned information and communications technologies (ICTs) are the primary drivers of cyberspace [5].Obviously, if the ICT applications that interface with humans can enable equity in presentations and interactions in the individual human languages irrespective of the original language of preservation of information in the application, endangered native languages will be revived, and the socioeconomic oppression and suppression of the native language speakers will be abated.Tis study terms such applications lingual agnostic and quickly contrasts them with existing multilingual or cross-lingual applications [3] which compulsorily present information to users in the original language of information preservation and not necessarily in the language of user interaction; and thus, can only be used by multilingual natives for optimum beneft.
In this 21 st century, the human resources of any country can only be fully harnessed when a bulk of its population are active cyber-participants.However, it is stifing in the present dispensation to have considerable active cyberparticipants in the afairs of a nation when a bulk of its population is excluded from the cyberspace due to language inequities.Tis is the sympathetic situation of many multilingual nations.Nigeria is a typical economy bedeviled with this problem of language inequities and cyber-exclusion.Nigeria has over 500 endangered languages [4] with less than half of its population literate in the dominant ofcial UN language-the English language [4,6].In particular, in the northern part of Nigeria, two of every three are excluded from participating in the cyberspace due to linguistic impediments resulting from their inability to read and write in the English language [7,8].
Language inequity is a serious problem that has attracted the attention of international bodies such as the United Nations Educational, Scientifc, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).According to [9,10], more than half of over 7,000 world languages are endangered.Tis number is highly signifcant as it translates to 90% of the languages likely to be thrown into extinction by the dominant languages towards the end of the 21 st century.It is interesting to note that these native language speakers cannot be tagged as illiterates [11,12] because a huge number of them can read and write in at least one language though endangered.If this large number of literate populations can be made to participate, contribute, and beneft from the cyberspace in their endangered native languages as their counterparts literate in the ofcial UN languages like English language, it will not only help preserve and promote these languages but also help maximize human potential for socioeconomic development of self and nation.Excluding such a huge population of a nation from participating, contributing, or benefting from the cyberspace will devalue the economy of that nation and by extension, the world.
Prevalent approaches to addressing this problem have been socioeconomic in nature [13,14].However, these socioeconomic approaches which culminate in economic empowerment, training, and digital access/penetration further the neglect of already endangered languages.We assert that lingual agnostic ICT applications that support monolingual natives irrespective of their language are a panacea to these language inequities and cyber-exclusion problem.Tis assertion is incident on the fact that human participation in the cyberspace is via interactions with the applications that run in the cyberspace and the terminal ICT devices.To the best of our knowledge, such an application or the blueprint for its realization is nonexistent.Tis problem is therefore desirous of the concerted efort of the design science research community-from the design through development to the deployment of applications that enable monolingual native interactions with ICTs-towards the revival of endangered languages and an all-inclusive socioeconomic world.Tis study therefore focuses its attention on a mechanism for realizing lingual agnostic ICT applications that support monolingual natives' inclusion in the cyberspace.
An indispensable ICT application that enables human participation in the cyberspace is the Information Retrieval System (IRS).IRS remains the gateway of the cyberspace enabling the retrieval of documents, information, or web services, relevant to a user need, from document repositories or servers [15].Basically, the existing IRS could be one of the following [16][17][18][19]: (i) Monolingual Information Retrieval System (MIRS): the query, storage, and presentation languages are the same.
(ii) Cross-lingual Information Retrieval System (CLIRS): the query language is diferent from the storage and presentation language(s).
(iii) Multilingual Information Retrieval System (MLIRS): the query language, storage language, and presentation language are in multiples.
It was observed that with the existing IRSs, the language of information retrieval (presentation language) is the same as the language of information storage.While the MIRS can completely exclude other language natives from participating in the cyberspace, the CLIRS and MLIRS may allow their inclusion but these users have to be multilingual, i.e., in addition to their native language, they must also be literate in the language of storage (document/information repository), thereby promoting language inequities.However, many MLIRSs leverage parallel corpora to accommodate monolingual natives but this seems foolhardy considering the myriad of natural languages-imagine a cyberspace with 7000 parallel corpora of information it is holding.Furthermore, sophisticated translation methods and pretrained language models are being introduced into CLIRS/MLIRS to support language agnosticism.However, these solutions also sufer from the problem of corpora multiplicity-resource and computational wastages-and tightly coupled information translation and retrieval processes of the system.In practice, many IRSs have already attempted to support monolingual natives of endangered languages across nations by providing translation facilities to search and retrieve information in their native language.However, this translation support is usually not transparent to users and hence hardly useful to natives who cannot comprehend in the default presentation language.Tus, the problem of the exclusion of monolingual natives from the cyberspace is yet to be addressed by existing IRSs.Attenuating the threat of exclusion of monolingual natives from cyber participation towards indigenous language preservation is the motivation of this research.
Consequently, this study specifcally dedicates itself to realizing a blueprint for building lingual agnostic IRS (LAIRS) that allows users to query in their native languages and have the required information efciently presented to them in the same language of the query irrespective of the original language of information storage.Furthermore, the feasibility of the designed lingual agnostic IRS will be established using queries in the dominant Nigerian native languages (Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba) and UN languages (English language and Arabic) with the language of storage being the English language only.
Te remaining part of the paper is organized as follows.Te next section examines closely related works and establishes the uniqueness of this work.While Section 3 describes the formulation, detailed design, and implementation of the lingual agnostic IRS architecture, Section 4 describes the evaluation of the resultant IRS system for language parity and its results and interpretation.Section 5 holds the conclusion and future work.
1.1.Contribution.Tis research paper has contributed to critical domains in the literature: (i) the information retrieval domain-a novel type of IRS named LAIRS, and (ii) the design research domain-a blueprint for building lingual agnostic applications.It is hoped that through adaptation, refnement, replication, and commercialization of the LAIRS architecture, an efective inclusion of monolingual natives in the cyberspace will be unlocked.

Related Work
Several authors have acknowledged the menace of digital exclusion to the socioeconomic and cultural well-being of people [20,21].Predominant solutions have been in the areas of digital access, empowerment, and training [22,23].Tese solutions nonetheless worsen language inequities particularly in the cyberspace.However, the authors of [13,24] hinted at the design and development of (native language) applications as panacea to the problem of language inequities and digital exclusion of endangered language natives.Tis study extended this ideology by adopting the design science research methodology (DSRM) [25][26][27] to realize an architectural blueprint for developing lingual agnostic IRS.
Te DSRM is particularly suited for this work because of the nature and novelty of the intended panacea to the problem of cyber-exclusion and language inequities which encapsulates a cyber-application, IRS in particular, such that it will be equally usable in any (preferred) user language.Te design and development of IRS predates the Internet and web [28] but the need for an IRS that accommodates natives became popular with the advent of the Internet and web which exposed IRS to information stored in diverse languages across the globe.
One of the earliest attempts at realizing IRS that accommodates natives was the work of Hull and Grefenstette [29].Tey proposed an MLIRS that is capable of retrieving documents across language boundaries because of the growing need by many countries to access web resources in their native language(s).Teir study established the feasibility of multilingual retrieval by introducing translated queries alongside a bilingual transfer dictionary.However, their work could only establish the feasibility of their idea of MLIRS for just a single language pair-French to English language relying on an English language repository.Teir work could not accommodate monolingual natives because search results were not returned in the language of the query.Tis gap characterized early IRS(s) that attempted to accommodate monolingual natives as evident in [19].
Te work of Aljlayl et al. [30] proposed Arabic to English language CLIRS where an Arabic query is used to search information collection in the English language.Teir research focused on query translation based on machine translation specifcally with ALKAFI Arabic-English machine translation system.Tough the accuracy of the retrieved result of their work is high, the retrieved result is in the language of information collection which is diferent from the language of the native query-Arabic, and thus cannot accommodate monolingual Arabic speakers.Also, Szpektor et al. [18] made an attempt at accommodating Hebrew natives using the English language information repository.Tough they realized an IRS, the work also had the drawback of returning search results in the language of information collection only.
Te work of Jagarlamudi and Kumaran [31] made an attempt at accommodating the diverse Indian natives in using an English language information repository.Teir goal was to retrieve relevant information through queries expressed in diferent languages in India from an English document collection.Teir result showed a signifcant level of success but like their predecessors, the IRS retrieved result was not in the same language as the native user's query; they were still unable to accommodate monolingual (Indian) natives.
A good attempt at accommodating monolingual natives was also made in [32] by developing a multilingual information repository.Tis work however failed to appreciate the reality that information is actively dynamic in nature--quantity and freshness-which invariably requires that document translation and index update be done in real time and not preprocessed, as was in their work.Tough translating document in real time has been shown to be expensive and slow [8,30], it is however more efective and realistic particularly with processor efciency considering the high volume, velocity, and variety of information in modern information repositories.
Inundated by the cost and inefciency associated with accommodating monolingual natives in the cyberspace, Ragnato et al. [33] introduced the concept of semantic indexing of multilingual corpora to evade, in their words, the heavily impractical task of obtaining and integrating reliable translation models for language pairs.Tough their approach may realize a more efcient CLIRS and MILRS, the retrieved result is still in the original language of storage and not in the user query language.Tis approach, therefore, still cannot accommodate monolingual natives in the cyberspace.Besides, Ragnato et al. [33] assumed a multiple language information repository as in [32] which is not only impracticable for the cyberspace but also not in tandem with the reality of cyber information-high volume, velocity, and variety.
A mixed-language Arabic-English CLIRS model was proposed in [34] to retrieve relevant documents that include mixed-language documents.Te classical and current CLIRSs do not address mixed-language document repository where in a corpus, a document can feature on a single page a text in diferent languages all together (i.e., Arabic and English) especially where technical terms in the Te Scientifc World Journal scientifc domain cannot be expressed in endangered languages.Tus, retrieving such types of documents in a native search query language alone proves difcult.A mixedlanguage query and cross-language document reweighting approach was used in their work to retrieve most relevant documents.Te major limitation of this study is that the proposed system requires the searcher to be either bilingual or multilingual; thus, their IRS is not useful to the monolingual natives.
CLIRS, which allows Indian natives to search English document collections in Tamil native language, was developed.Teir work was motivated by the inability of the existing CLIRS translation tool that uses word by word (dictionary-based) translation to properly take care of IR challenges in terms of query ambiguity, out-of-vocabulary words, word infection, and improper sentence structure.Tamil native language is predominantly spoken by over 75 million people of Indian natives particularly the South Indians.Unfortunately, these natives have poor linguistic competence to formulate search queries in the English language but possess good reading and writing skills in their Tamil native language.Teir work, however, does not accommodate monolingual (Tamil) natives who can only search in their native language and accept results in the same language irrespective of the language of the stored document.A similar conclusion also holds for [35], despite the reverse design of their CLIRS, that accepts queries in the English language with the information stored in the native (Hindi) language.
In more recent times, as predicted by Hull and Grefenstette [29], eforts have been directed at realizing information retrieval tasks across language boundaries.Such eforts as evident in [36][37][38][39][40][41] take advantage of sophisticated machine translation processes, parallel multilingual corpora, and pretrained language models.Tese eforts may support monolingual natives and help evade the extinction of endangered languages but their translation and retrieval tasks are tightly coupled [39].Besides, these works are not application development eforts but internal methods or techniques that could be used to fortify the translation and information retrieval processes of an IRS such as the LAIRS proposed in this paper.Our work is an application development efort targeted at realizing a loosely coupled resource efcient translation and retrieval components of a language agnostic IRS.Obviously, loosely coupled systems are easy to build, deploy, reuse, and maintain.Similarly, translation transparency will ease application usage by monolingual natives without multilinguistic abilities while resource efciency minimizes wastage and usually realizes light weight solutions.
We are aware of the works of Chaware and Rao [42] which proposed a resource efcient LAIRS to support monolingual Indian natives.Although their work is an application development efort, it is vague in design, implementation, and evaluation.Tus, it is not replicable and cannot be said to be successful.We are also aware of the works of Mhaw et al. [43] which employed evolutionary algorithms and realized an IRS with, in their words, "the best accuracy" so far.However, their proposed IRS is MIRS which cannot handle the problem of the exclusion of natives.
Overall, previous application development eforts at accommodating natives in the cyberspace centered on IRS do not allow monolingual natives to retrieve information solely in their native languages through queries submitted in their own native language particularly where the cyber information is not stored in these native languages, thus excluding monolingual natives from the cyberspace.

Methodology
3.1.Architecture Design and Instantiation.Tis section documents the materials and methods employed in the formulation, design, and implementation of the lingual agnostic IRS.Tus, this section is reported under three subsections: (i) Architecture Formulation, (ii) Architecture Design, and (iii) Architecture Implementation.Also, the resulting artifacts were exposed and discussed in logical fows in their subsections of realization.Tese design artifacts are technical guides to instantiating the solution blueprints and thus necessary.
3.1.1.Architecture Formulation.Tis subsection documents a blueprint for developing a lingual agnostic IRS.Te introduced software application blueprint or architecture is based on the principle of transparency and caching.Te architecture focuses on enabling seamless humanapplication interaction in the user's own language, for possibly all human languages, irrespective of the default language of interaction and information storage of the application.Tus, of a necessity, such blueprint should have a mechanism for transparently detecting user language and performing translations to give any user the impression that the application is built to be interacted within their own language.Transparency is the concealment of certain physical or logical processes or entities in a software system or application usage from the user or the application programmer [44].It is a computational principle that improves user convenience and simplicity of interaction with application software.
Te IRS architecture is designed basically to conceal from the user the fact that the IRS was built to interact in a default language of information preservation and presentation by transparently detecting their language of query and performing to-and-fro translations, as necessary, between the default language and the detected non-default query language behind the scene, i.e., without the knowledge of the user.Tis ofers the advantage of convenience, efciency, confdence, and evasion of the manual repetitive task of the user having to make use of external translators.Besides, only at least bilingual natives can seamlessly make use of translators external to IRS in the cyberspace.To mitigate the inefciency resulting from the to-and-fro translations, caching was introduced for possible non-default languages of user query results or suggestions.Tis IRS architecture that makes any user see the resultant IRS application as if it were designed specifcally for their own language and uses it as such is depicted in Figure 1 and termed lingual agnostic IRS architecture.

4
Te Scientifc World Journal Te architecture in Figure 1 consists of six basic parts: (i) user interface, (ii) language detector, (iii) search system, (iv) translator, (v) document repository, and (vi) document cache, and is discussed as follows: (i) User Interface.Te user interface enables user interaction with the system-query submission to the system and retrieval of suggestions from the system.It also subsumes the language detector component that helps decipher the user query language.(ii) Language Detector.Te task of the language detector is to intercept the user query before it gets to the search system, detect the language of the query, and inform the search system of necessary search operations, including translations and presentation of responses in the same user language.(iii) Search System.Te architecture's search system is an extended search system whose invocation is dependent on the query language for each supplied query.If the query language is in the default language, it does direct search on the document repository and returns the search suggestions to the user; otherwise, it searches the appropriate language document cache of the query language if similar query formulation suggestion is still cached; else, it then translates the query formulation to the default language, searches the document repository in the default language, translates the search suggestions back to the language of query, and simultaneously updates its language cache and returns the search suggestions to the user in the user's language of query.
(iv) Translator.Te translator consists of multiple bidirectional language translators between the default language and possibly all other human languages and works under the control of the search system.In Figure 1, the translator component is depicted twice to show the two bidirectional types of translations (default to non-default and vice versa), and the logical position of a language translator instance is invoked, whereas it is a single translator capable of bidirectional translation between the default language and other languages and vice versa.
(v) Document Corpus.Te document corpus is simply the full information (document) collection of the search system in the default language.Te default language is the prevalent language of information availability.It is then easy to translate the few nondefault information or documents to the default language for preservation.Tis drastically attenuates the unbearable cost and staleness in preserving Te Scientifc World Journal all information or documents in all possible languages, as is the case with MLIRS.(vi) Document Cache.Te document cache consists of language replicas of caches of information or documents initially retrieved for similar queries and non-default language.Cache was particularly introduced to help mitigate the inefciency resulting from the to-and-fro translations associated with the search requests and suggestions in non-default languages.Te caches are light weight and can be updated using any appropriate technique to guarantee freshness.
Although this architecture is specifcally tailored to lingual agnostic IRSs, it can be adapted to realize any lingual agnostic application based on the principles of transparent user interaction language detection and translation as exemplifed in this subsection.

Architecture Design.
Te unifed modeling language (UML) was employed to translate the lingual agnostic IRS architecture into computational artifacts towards its implementation.UML has become the de facto language for modeling software systems [45].Generally, the structure and behavior of a software system can be efectively modeled in UML in the four design views of software systems, namely, (i) functional view, (ii) static structural view, (iii) behavioral or dynamic structural view, and (iv) architectural view [46].In line with a similar work that also modeled a unique IRS architecture [46,47], this study presents the design of the system implementation of the lingual agnostic IRS architecture in the following notations: use case diagram, class diagram, sequence diagram, activity diagram, component diagram, and deployment diagram.Te design was done using Lucidchart (https://lucidchart.com) and Draw.io (https://drawio-app.com).Teir choice was based on familiarity, accessibility, and ease of use.

Use Case Diagram.
A use case diagram is used to describe system functionality from a user's perspective.Te use case of the lingual agnostic IRS is modeled as presented in Figure 2. From Figure 2, the user enters a search query which initiates the search process after the query language has been detected.Te search process then triggers the corpus search or the cache search depending on the language of query and may have to carry out necessary translations to ensure its search suggestions are in the user's language of query.

Class Diagram.
Te class diagram is used to show the static structural view of a system.Te class diagram of the lingual agnostic IRS is depicted in Figure 3. Te Search Interface class also displays the search suggestions to the user.Te Search System class is composed of the Search Engine and Translator classes.Te Translator class can translate the query from its language to English language or translate documents in English language to the language of query.Te Search Engine class is composed of the Searcher, LuceneConstants,, and TestFileFilter.Te Searcher class performs the indexing, matching, ranking, and retrieval of search suggestions.Te LuceneConstant class defnes the retrieved document fle and path names while the TestFileFilter class ensures that the retrieved documents are of type text (.txt).

Sequence Diagram.
Te sequence diagram is used to describe the system's behavior in terms of execution sequence and timeline of liveliness of the individual objects of a system during the execution.Te sequence diagram of the lingual agnostic IRS is depicted in Figure 4. Te sequence diagram in Figure 4 consists of seven objects including the searcher.As depicted in Figure 4, the Searcher submits query to the Search Interface object which sends it to the Query Language Detector object to decipher and decorate the query with the language of query and transmits to the Search system object to perform the search activities on the Document Corpus object if the language of query is English language and the retrieved search suggestions are transmitted back to the Search Interface object for display to the user.
However, if the language of the query is not English, the decorated query is used by the search system object to search the Proxy Cache object of the language of the query.If matched results are in the cache, the retrieved search suggestions are transmitted back to the Search Interface object for display to the user; otherwise, the decorated query is sent by the Search System object to the Translator object to be translated into English.Te Translator object then passes the translated query back to the Search System object to search the Document Corpus object.Te retrieved documents are then transmitted to the Translator object for translation into the language of query and simultaneously sent to the Search Interface object and the Proxy Cache object of the language of query for display and caching, respectively.

Activity Diagram.
While the sequence diagram describes the object execution sequence and liveliness, the activity diagram describes data execution fow and transformation from one process to another in a system from the start to the termination of the system's execution circle.Te activity diagram for the lingual agnostic IRS system is depicted in Figure 5. From Figure 5, the activity diagram commences with the Get Query process which captures user query and then the Detect Language process which not only detects the language of the query but also uses the detected language to decorate the user query before onward transition to the Search process.Te Scientifc World Journal Te Search process transfers control to the Search Corpus process or the Search Cache process depending on the language of the query.If the language of query is English, control is transferred to the Search Corpus process; otherwise, control is transferred to the Search Cache process.Te Search Cache process searches and retrieves cached documents for the query from the document cache for the language of query, if they exist, which it transfers to the Display Result process before exiting the system.If they do not exist in the cache, the Search Cache process sends the decorated query to the Translate Query process which translates the decorated query into English and transmits it to the Search Corpus process.Te Search Corpus process performs the search activities on the document corpus using the query it receives and transfers retrieved documents to the Display Result process before exiting the system, if the query was originally in English language; otherwise, it sends the retrieved documents to the Translate Documents process.Te Translate Documents process translates the retrieved documents to the original language of the query and simultaneously sends the translated version to the Update Proxy and Display Result processes for appropriate cache update and search suggestion display, respectively.

Deployment Diagram.
Te deployment diagram is used to show how the system components will be confgured for operational use.Te deployment diagram of the lingual agnostic IRS is depicted in Figure 7. Figure 7 shows the lingual agnostic IRS as a client-server system with the client side consisting of the User Interface and Language Detector components and the server side consisting of the Search System and Translator components, all communicating as shown.Te Scientifc World Journal are nonexistent, open source, or proprietary.In this study, the search system and language detector components are open source and the translator component is proprietary while the user interface component was built from scratch.Specifcally, the CBSE tailored agile approach [49][50][51] depicted in Figure 8 was adopted for the implementation.Adopting this iterative agile approach was incident on the complexity associated with component selection and integration [48,52].Te system's design reported in Section 3.2 therefore is the fnal design of the lingual agnostic IRS.
After a series of iterations and integration testing of selected components or application programming interface (API) on the NetBeans integrated development environment (IDE), the following reused components were selected and integrated alongside the User Interface to realize the resultant lingual agnostic IRS: Google Translate v2 (Translator), Lucene Core version 3.6.2(Search System), and DetectLanguage API version 1.1.0(Language Detector).Te reusable components used were selected based on documentation, ease of use, portability, reliability, generality, and mutual compatibility.Te NetBeans 8.1 IDE was employed as the IDE of choice due to familiarity, ease of use, and robustness.Te User Interface component of the IRS and its knitting with other selected components was done using the Java programming language, the default language of the NetBeans IDE.
Te resultant lingual agnostic IRS was developed, tested, and run on 70 carefully curated user queries in the fve selected human languages and a corpus of 86 English language documents stored as .txtfat fles, all hosted on a 64 bit Intel ® Core ™ i5-2540M @2.60 GHz 2.60 GHz Windows 10 Pro DELL (DESKTOP-BBLD6FK) Personal Computer with 4.00 GB RAM.For reproducibility and possible improvements, the source code of the implementation is in tswj-6949281-sup-01-LAIRSourcecode.doc(supplementary material (available here)).Te queries and their search suggestions in the fve selected human languages are presented, analyzed, and discussed in the next section.

Results and Discussion
4.1.Experimental Evaluation.Tis section documents the system evaluation for parity of search precision, recall, and F-measure of the lingual agnostic IRS on a document corpus for a set of queries in the English language and their translated equivalents in Arabic, Igbo, Hausa, and Yoruba.Heuristic and system evaluation techniques [53][54][55][56] were employed and the results were further summarized using line graphs.Te document corpus was a set of 86 journal articles in .txt,serially numbered, from the BADALA Journal.Te BADALA journal was chosen because of the familiarity of our language experts with the journal both as authors and readers.To evaluate the IRS system, a set of 70 information needs and their equivalent queries (or topics) in the English language as shown in Table 1 were carefully curated.A minimum of 50 test topics is enough for obtaining reliable IRS evaluation results [57,58].
Te queries were manually translated into Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, and Arabic by the language experts and authenticated by diferent language experts.Tese language experts and their peer authenticators are of the School of Nigerian Languages, Federal College of Education, Kano, each with a minimum of MA and fve years of teaching, writing, and speaking experience in the respective languages.Te translated queries in the various languages are presented in the same order as their English language counterpart as shown in Table 2.
Tereafter, a system search was performed on the designed IRS using the 70 queries one after another for the English language and each of the translated equivalents for the four selected indigenous languages.Te IRS search suggestions (document identifers) for the queries in each of the languages are captured in Table 2 as retrieved.Te search suggestion documents in each of the translated languages were then presented to the language experts for each of the language as translated vis-à-vis the original English language document for authentication.Tey all agreed that the translations were in the correct language and semantically correct but not perfect.Tis is not strange as no machine translation can be as perfect as human expert translation [59][60][61].Te Scientifc World Journal  Te Scientifc World Journal It is worth a quick note that a given indigenous search operation took between 12 and 15 minutes to complete on frst instance depending on the number of documents retrieved and network strength as the translator component was remotely consumed but subsequently (i.e., after caching) took less than 30 seconds as their English language counterparts.Tis underscores the importance of caching in the architecture.
From the results in Table 2, the lingual agnostic IRS search precision@10, recall@10, and F-measure@10 were computed using equations ( 1)-(3) [46,57], respectively, for each query in the fve languages including the English language as captured in Table 3, and the summary (averages) is presented in Table 4. Te use of the frst ten retrievals per topic search is common and efective in practice for evaluating IRS [58].
Te relevant documents for each query in the repository as identifed in the English language context and shown in Table 3 were used in this study as the gold standard since the study is about parity of interaction between the indigenous language users and the English language user.Tus, relevant document retrieved (RDR) in this study is a function of what is relevant in the default language of the document repository which is the English language.
Precision@10 � Number of relevant documents retrieved in the first ten retrievals (RDR@10) Total number of documents retrieved (i.e.10) , Recall@10 � Number of relevant documents retrieved in the first ten retrievals (RDR@10) F − measure@10 � 2 * Precision@10 * Recall@10 Precision@10 + Recall@10 . ( Table 4 holds the average precision@10, recall@10, and F-measure@10 of the individual languages.From Table 4, a line graph of precision@10 of each query for each of the fve languages is captured as shown in Figure 9. Similarly, Figures 10 and 11 hold the line graphs of recall@10 and Fmeasure@10, respectively.From Tables 3 and 4 and Figures 9  and 10, it is evident that LAIRS precision@10 ranges from 0.0 to 0.6 with an average of 0.23, recall@10 ranges from 0.0 to 1.0 with an average of 0.44, and F-measure@10 ranges from 0.0 to 0.7 with an average of 0.30.Tese signal higher recall than precision in the performance of LAIRS across languages and queries in practice.Tus, users of LAIRS are guaranteed that close to half of the relevant documents retrieved in the frst ten retrieved documents in a search operation, if they exist in the repository, are relevant. To determine the parity of selected indigenous language with English language using the lingual agnostic IRS, the study assumed the English language results as the gold standard.To obtain language parity, the ratios of the average search precision@10, recall@10, and F-measure@10 for each indigenous language to those of the English language expressed as percentages were computed and are presented Te Scientifc World Journal         4 depicts the average percentage parity of precision@10, recall@10, or Fmeasure@10 of the indigenous languages with the English language and, thus, represents the search retrieval performance of the IRS for non-English language speakers.In particular, the overall parity F-measure is taken as the Figure 10: Lingual agnostic IRS recall@10 line graph for selected language topics (source: authors).Te Scientifc World Journal designed system language parity measure.Te F-measure value is often the preferred retrieval reliability measure for IRS because it mitigates the efect of outliers in both precision and recall values.In the same vein, the overall parity F-measure is a reasonable measure of the lingual agnostic IRS.Finally, the average parities of F-measure computed for each of the non-English languages and the overall F-measure as well were depicted as an area graph to show the parity (disparity) of interaction of English language vis-à-vis other languages using the LAIRS, as presented in Figure 12.While the line graph helps to show the retrieval trend over query, the area graph shows the space in the whole that non-English language users are in parity or disparity with the English language users while interacting with LAIRS.Te graphs and computations were drawn/computed using the Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet package.Te Excel spreadsheet satisfactorily captures our intended message; it is available and easy to use, hence its choice.

Interpretation of Results.
It is important to appreciate that the essence of the evaluation is to determine the parity of interaction with the IRS using non-English language visà-vis using English language.Te number of queries was limited to 70, a decision made to ensure the minimum 50 required to reliably evaluate an IRS [57,58] is exceeded.Tis limit also helps to avoid overburdening the language experts, who have to manually examine each piece of information and query results from about 86 journal articles for relevance in retrieval and presentation.Te number of indigenous languages considered by this research was incident on the indigenous languages in the use environment of study with standard translator components.
Te system evaluation results in Table 4 show that the lingual agnostic IRS is an excellent IRS with equitable information retrieval across indigenous languages.Tis was also the case for execution efciency as noted in Section 4.1.Ordinarily, on real-life development/deployment, the IRS translator(s) will not be remotely consumed and if at all, with minimal latency; thus, the initial efciency hiccup experienced before cashing will not be pronounced as in this experimental case particularly as with ultra-fast servers.
Te implication of this is that, overall, the IRS is excellently stable across queries and languages.Te language disparity in the designed lingual agnostic IRS as evident in Tables 3 and 4 and Figure 12 can be traced to the translator imperfection as exposed in [62,63].Te implication is that as the indigenous language translators improve in accuracy, the lingual agnostic IRS will defnitely improve in parity of interaction with the non-default languages as with the English language.Table 4 makes it evident that the lingual agnostic IRS guarantees a parity of 86% with the English language irrespective of the language of interaction.Tis parity of language interaction can be as high as 90% for some languages and even higher.Te implication is that the IRS is capable of mitigating the language inequities bedeviling cyber-participation by about 90%, i.e., with such IRS deployed, monolingual natives can participate, contribute, or beneft from the cyberspace with less than 10% additional strain as their English language counterparts.Tis fact is however not foolproof due to the limited number of languages used.

Comparative Analysis.
To address the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion, a basic IRS-the lingual agnostic IRS (LAIRS)-has been introduced.Te LAIRS is a basic IRS designed to accept queries in any detectable language and return search results in the language of query irrespective of the language of storage.However, for pragmatic concerns, it is necessary to comparatively analyze LAIRS against existing IRSs-MIRS, CLIRS, and MLIRS-to showcase LAIRS's efectiveness and efciency to address the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion against the current IRS solutions.To this end, six criteria of pressing interest to present users of IRS in the cyberspace were

32
Te Scientifc World Journal identifed to further discussion: (i) inclusivity, (ii) efectiveness, (iii) relevance, (iv) efciency, (v) efort, and (vi) sustainability.Tese criteria are examined as follows: (i) Inclusivity.Te inclusion of all humans in the social, economic, and political afairs of humanity increasingly driven by the cyberspace is a global mandate [64].LAIRS and MLIRS have excellent inclusivity as they can accommodate any user including monolingual natives.However, while MLIRS incurs exponential storage costs with increasing number of corpus documents (N) and increasing number of detectable languages (L) (i.e., N × L storage cost) to enable inclusivity due to parallelism of corpus, the LAIRS storage cost only increases linearly with N. Terefore, the inclusivity cost of LAIRS can be said to be linear while that of MLIRS is exponential.Te inclusivity strengths of both LAIRS and MLIRS are however limited by the availability of resources and tools for language detection and translation.Te CLIRS inclusivity is seriously limited and can best be rated as fair because it allows user queries in any detectable language but returns results in the original language of information storage which may not be the language of user queries.Te MIRS obviously excludes all but one set of monolingual natives since the language of user query must be the same as that of information storage.Overall, LAIRS best supports inclusivity in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.(ii) Efectiveness.Te efectiveness of an IRS is commonly defned by its precision (the amount of retrieved documents that were intended) and recall (the amount of intended document that were retrieved).Here, MIRS stands out as it requires no language translation.Information loses accuracy when translated from one language to another; however, excellent the translator.CLIRS may only require user query translation while LAIRS and MLIRS may require both user query translation and document translation.Hence, their efectiveness is limited and dependent on the quality of translation of user queries and retrieved documents/information.Consequently, the efectiveness of LAIRS and MLIRS in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion is dependent on the accuracy and reliability of the individual language translators which in turn depends on the efcacy of the linguistic resources available to the individual languages.Tis accounts for the varying performance across the diferent languages (language bias) in this study despite the queries having the same meaning and intent.Continuous investments and improvements in individual language linguistic resources and natural language translators particularly for the low resource languages will bring about improved retrieval equity and efectiveness of LAIRS for improved cyber-inclusion.Overall, LAIRS is limited by retrieval efectiveness in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.
(iii) Relevance.A retrieved document even when it is the expected document may be presented in another language or format incomprehensible to the user.Such documents will not be useful to the user due to language barriers and hence not relevant.Tis will rarely occur with MIRS and LAIRS since retrieval results are compulsorily returned in the language of the user query.However, this is always the case with MLIRS, though not necessarily so, despite the implementation strategy-MLIRS supports multilinguistic documents or users.Hence, we can state Te Scientifc World Journal that MIRS and LAIRS are of excellent relevance while MLIRS can be rated fair in terms of relevance.However, CLIRS has low relevance because irrespective of the language of user query, the retrieved document is returned in the language of information/document storage.Overall, LAIRS best supports relevance in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.
(iv) Efciency.Efciency in computing is the reasonable or (near) optimum use of computer resources-time, space, and computational overhead-in execution to perform a given task which in this case is an information search and retrieval task.When an application is wasteful in the utilization of these computer resources, it does manifest in time and/or space consumption.Hence, the complexity of computer algorithms till date is determined by time and space complexities.Obviously, MIRS will be most efcient in terms of response time of the four basic IRSs because it requires no translation or additional task outside common retrieval and specifc implementation tasks.Tis will be closely followed by CLIRS that does user query selection only and can be rated as good in efciency.MLIRS, which may involve both user query and document translation, does its document translation ofine, i.e., preprocessed, unlike LAIRS, whose corpora translation is done in real-time of execution of user search instruction except the hit was found in the cache.Tus, we can conclude that LAIRS has the worst time efciency than all other basic IRSs in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.In terms of space consumption, the MIRS and CLIRS corpora have no multiple language replicas though they may be replicated or distributed to meet non-functional requirements and are thus excellently efcient in terms of space.Tis is not the case with MLIRS usually with parallel corpora which can also be replicated or distributed.Tus, we conclude that MLIRS is poorly efcient in terms of space consumption.Te LAIRS only has a parallel cache corpus, which is usually lightweight compared to permanent repositories.LAIRS therefore can be said to have good space efciency, a better space efciency than MLIRS though not as good as those of MIRS and CLIRS in terms of space consumption.Te MIRS is also the best in computational overhead, followed closely by CLIRS and then MLIRS.Te CLIRS and MLIRS additional retrieval task in a retrieval operation has to do with query translation though MLIRS may involve additional language tuning tasks.Te LAIRS is the worst in terms of computational overhead because it does bidirectional translation online, i.e., in real time on demand of a retrieval task.Overall, we conclude that LAIR is poorly efcient in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.However, with the increasing computer speed and faster broadband, this defect will be attenuated.(v) Efort.Tis is the user knowledge or capabilities required to use the IRS solutions from the respective IRSs.Te CLIRS requires the user to be at least bilingual making it almost impossible for any user defective in the language of storage to use CLIRS solutions.Tis language restriction is worst with MIRS where the user is restricted to a single language.Most MIRS and CLIRS solutions particularly in the cyberspace now provide external language detection and/or translation provision for users to externally select their user search language and/or translate retrieved documents to their language of convenience.It is trivial to state that these external provisions are usually in a mono language which may not even be comprehensible to a user not knowledgeable in that language.Tis makes the user efort particularly as it afects linguistic capabilities in cyber-inclusion to be high for MIRS.MLIRS and LAIRS require the least user efort as it afects linguistic capabilities in cyber-inclusion.However, the maintenance efort of MLIRS is high as each document must be translated ofine to N-1 corpus for N parallel corpus of a MLIRS unlike with LAIRS whose translation is done real time transparently on-demand, if at all required, i.e., if not already in the required language cache.Overall, LAIRS best supports user efort in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.(vi) Sustainability.Sustainability is an issue of critical global concern.In the context of this discussion, sustainability is the capacity of IRS solutions to consistently and equitably support the increasing size of corpus and incorporate the growing number of languages with linguistic resources and translation solutions in the cyberspace.MIRS and CLIRS are obviously not in for consideration under sustainability as their IRS solutions cannot scale in the dimension of increasing language support despite their capacity to scale linearly with increasing size of corpus.Although LAIRS and MLIRS solutions have the capacity to scale in both dimensions of corpus and languages, the corpus parallelism feature of MLIRS casts aspersions on its capacity to scale with increasing corpus size (N) and number of languages (L).For as N ⟶ ∞ and L ⟶ ∞, the storage demand (S) of MLIRS will be impractical to maintain since parallelism implies S::MLIRS ⟶ N × L. However, the storage demand of LAIRS will behave as those of MIRS and CLIRS which grows linearly with N particularly with a very large N as with the cyberspace.Te additional space demand of LAIRS against those of MIRS and CLIRS overtime as the number of languages increases is the 34 Te Scientifc World Journal number of cache which is usually lightweight and of fxed size (α).Tus, S::LAIRS ⟶ N + αL < 2N.Overall, LAIRS best supports sustainability in addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion.
Conclusively, LAIRS has shown superior prospects of resolving the problem of language barriers to cyberinclusion than any of the existing IRSs: MIRS, CLIRS, and MLIRS.

Conclusion and Future Work
Te problem of language inequities and cyber-exclusion has received considerable socioeconomic (behavioral science research) attention producing efective solutions.However, these solutions which can be grouped under training, empowerment, and digital access/penetration strengthen language inequities, thereby facilitating the extinction of many native languages.To complement this behavioral science research efort, the work examined the dual problem from the built perspective and addressed the problem via an alternate information system research paradigm-the design science research paradigm.
Tis research posture was incident on the obvious fact that human interaction with the cyberspace is via interaction with the applications that run on the cyberspace and the terminal ICT devices.Te research then nursed a novel idea of lingual agnostic cyber applications as a panacea to the problem of cyber-exclusion and language inequities.Tese applications vary but the most fundamental of them is the IRS.Consequently, the built idea was situated in the information retrieval domain for purposes of instantiation and experimentation.Te built idea is simply based on the principle of transparency of user language detection and message translations as well as caching to mitigate the inefciency associated with information translation.
Obviously, the design science research methodology is most appropriate for built ideas and was thus adopted for this research.Te research has introduced a blueprint or architecture, hitherto not existing, for developing lingual agnostic IRS-a unique type of IRS.Tis blueprint has been designed using UML in the four facets of system design.Adopting the agile and CBSE approaches, the study has developed a functional prototype of the IRS.Tis IRS has been evaluated for parity of interaction with monolingual natives vis-à-vis the default application language users using the heuristic and system evaluation methods.Te result is that the IRS is excellently stable across languages and queries with language interaction parity as high as 90% in the use of indigenous languages for information access and retrieval.With such IRS deployed, monolingual natives can participate, contribute, or beneft from the cyberspace with less than 10% additional strain as their default language counterparts.Furthermore, it has been shown that LAIRS is the most appropriate IRS for addressing the problem of language barriers to cyber-inclusion compared to existing IRSs: MIRS, CLIRS, and MLIRS.
For improved language interaction parity and to accommodate more monolingual natives in the cyberspace, existing translators must improve their accuracy, while for those languages without standard language translators, there should be urgent investments on eforts towards the language formalism and bidirectional translation with other languages.Te capability of the proposed lingual agnostic IRS architecture needs to be tested further on more diverse languages.Also, an ablation study should be carried out on the proposed architecture with a view to realizing the existing component combination set for optimal language parity.Tese are urgent calls to rescue endangered languages and boost cyber-participation.
Figure 3 consists of eight classes: Search Interface, Language Detector, Search System, Search Engine, Translator, Searcher, LuceneConstants, and TextFileFilter classes and their associations.Te Search Interface class accepts user queries and invokes the Language Detector class which detects the language of the query and uses it to decorate the query for onward search processing by the Search System class.

3. 2 . 5 .
Component Diagram.Te component diagram is a high-level description of the system structure in terms of component composition, their interconnectedness, and messaging directions as a black box.Te component diagram of the lingual agnostic IRS is depicted in Figure 6.As depicted in Figure 6, the component diagram consists of four components: Search Interface, Search System, Language Detector, and Translator components.Te Search Interface component sends Query messages to the Language Detector component and receives search suggestions from the Search System component.Te Language Detector component receives Query messages from the Search Interface component and sends language (L) decorated Query, Query (L), to the Search System component.Te Search System component sends and receives messages from the Translator component and vice versa.Te Search System component also receives retrieved documents from documents repositories which it sends to the Search Interface as search suggestions.

Table 1 :
Curated information needs and queries (topics). of Language and Communication in Transforming and Sustaining National Development in Nigeria Assess and Role and Language and Communication and Transform and Sustain and National and Development and Nigeria 2 Te Importance of Maintenance Culture in the Management and Growth of Organizations in Nigeria Importance and Maintenance and Culture and Management and Growth and Organization and Nigeria 3 Te Role of Islamic Studies Teachers in the Quality Control of Education in Nigeria Role and Islamic and Studies and Teacher and "Quality Control" and Education and Nigeria 4 Leadership in Sports Management Plays an Integral Role in the Development of Sports Activities in Nigeria Leadership and Sport and Management and Play and Role and Development and Nigeria 5 Science Education and Good Governance in Nigeria Science and Education and Good and Governance and Nigeria 6 Islamic Education as a Panacea to Corruption in Nigeria Islamic and Education and Panacea and Corruption and Nigeria 7 Social Studies Education and the National Security Transformation Agenda "Social Studies" and Education and "National Security" and Transformation and Agenda 8 Islamic Education as a Panacea to Corruption in Nigerian Economy Islamic and Education and Panacea and Corruption and Nigeria and Economy 9 Transformation Agenda: Key to Economic Development in Nigeria Transformation and Agenda and "Economic Development" and Nigeria 10 Estimation of Percentage of Calcium in Some Tap Water Samples Estimation and Percentage and Calcium and "Tap Water" 11 Functions of National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) towards Quality Teacher Education in Nigeria Functions and "National Commission" and College and Education and NCCE and Teacher and Nigeria 12 Socio-Cultural Literacy Education as Precursor to National Security Management and National Transformation Agenda in Nigeria Socio-Cultural and Literacy and Education and "National Security" and Management and Transformation and Agenda and Nigeria 13 National Security, Human Rights Protection, and Social Transformation "National Security" and "Human Right" and Protection and Social and Transformation 14 Te Importance of Games, Role Play, and Debate as Teaching Techniques in Social Studies Importance and Games and "Role Play" and Debate and Teaching and Technique and "Social Studies" 15 Potentials of Teatre Arts in Empowering Youths for National Stability Potential and "Teatre Arts" and Youth and National and Stability 16 Social Studies Education as a Tool for Economy Transformation and Self-Reliance "Social Studies" and Education and Tool and Economy and Transformation and "Self-Reliance" 17 Te Dynamics of Inter-Group Relations in Multicultural Society like Nigeria Inter-Group and Multicultural and Society and Nigeria 18 Women in Sports: Gender Stereotypes in the Past and Present Women and Sport and Gender and Stereotype 19 Youth Empowerment: A Remedial Action for Youth Involvement in Kano Confict for National Stability Youth and Empowerment and Kano and Confict and National and Stability and Involvement and Remedy 20 Te Challenges of Constitutional Reform, Economic Depression, and Nigeria's Quest for National Birth Challenge and Constitution and Reform and "Economic Depression" and National and Nigeria 21 Te Changing Political Map of Nigeria from 1960 to Date and National Rebirth "Political Map" and Nigeria and 1960 and "National Rebirth" 22 Geography Education and Natural Resources Management for National Rebirth in Nigeria Geography and Education and "Natural Resources" and Management and "National Rebirth" and Nigeria 23 Towards an Efective History Education for National Rebirth "History Education" and "National Rebirth" and Efective 24 Te Relevance of Nigeria's Historical Experience for National Rebirth Nigeria and "Historical Experience" and "National Rebirth" and Relevance 25 Te Global Economic Depression of the 1930s Lessons for Nigeria Global and "Economic Depression" and Lesson and 1930 and Nigeria 26 Attitudinal and Value Reorientation: A Sine qua non for National Rebirth and Development Attitude and "Value Reorientation" and Sinequanon and "National Rebirth" and Development 27 Refocusing Political Education for National Security and Nigeria Rebirth "Political Education" and "National Security" and Nigeria and Rebirth 28 Te Level of Youth Political Awareness and Participation: Implication for National Stability Youth and "Political Awareness" and Participation and Implication and ", as an Instrument for Civic Responsibility, Economic Efciency, and National Rebirth "Social Studies" and Civic and Responsibility and Education and Instrument and "Economic Efciency" and "National Rebirth" Islamic and Constitutional and Reform and "Economic Depression" and "National Rebirth" 35 Problems of Teaching and Learning Islamic Studies in Colleges of Education: A New Direction for National Development Problem and New and Direction and Teaching and Learning and "Islamic Studies" and College and Education and National and Development 36 Te Church and Citizenship and Leadership Education for National Rebirth Church and Citizenship and leadership and Education and "National Rebirth" 37 Determinants of Parental Infuence on Child in Teir Youth Age and Sports Participation Parent and Child and Infuence and Youth and Sport and Participation 38 Role of Physical Activity in Preventing and Treating Overweight and Obesity Role and "Physical Activity" and Treat and Prevent and Overweight and Obesity 39 Information Communication Technology in the Management and Administration of Sports in Tertiary Institutions Information and Communication and Technology and Management and Administration and Sport and Tertiary and Institution 40 Global Economic Melt Down Vision 2020 and Geography Education Global and Economy and "Vision 2020" and Geography and "Melt Down" and Education 41 Te Roles of Islamic Teachings in Economic Development of Nigeria Role and "Islamic Teaching" and Economy and Development and Nigeria 42 Hitches in the Organization and Administration of Guidance Services in Nigerian Secondary Schools Hitch and Organization and Administration and Guidance and Nigerian and "Secondary School" and Service 43 Activity-Based Method for Efective Teaching and Learning Science in Secondary Schools Method and Activity and Efective and Teaching and Learning and Science and "Secondary School" 44 Te Importance of Mother Tongue in the Context of Nigeria's Aspiration for Economic Development Importance and "Mother Tongue" and Nigeria and Aspiration and Economy and Development 45 An X-Ray of Secondary School Management, Constitutional Reforms, Economic Depression, and National Rebirth in Nigeria "Secondary School" and Management and Constitution and Reform and "Economic Depression" and "National and Rebirth" and Nigeria 46 Te Emerging Roles of the Society in the Implementation of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria in the 21st Century Emerging and Role and UBE and Society and Implementation and "Universal Basic" and Education and Nigeria and "21st Century" 47 Te Quest for a Credible Electoral System and Sustainable Democracy in Nigeria: Imperatives of Constitutional Reform Credible and "Electoral System" and Sustainable and Democracy and Nigeria and Constitution and Reform 48 Te Biography and Contribution of Islamic Scholars to Knowledge and Intellectual Achievement of Muslim Society Biography and Contribution and "Islamic Scholar" and Knowledge and "Muslim Society" 49 Practicability of Activity-Based Costing System in the Nigeria Transport Industries Practicability and System and Nigeria and Transport and Industry 50 Islamic Solution to Economic Depression and Poverty Alleviation Islamic and Solution and "Economic Depression" and Poverty 51 A Collaborative Approach to the Management of Women Education for Sustainable National Development Collaboration and Approach and Management and Women and Education and Sustainable and National and Development 52 A Profle Appraisal of Part-Time Adult Education Programme in Geography Appraisal and Part-Time and "Adult Education" and Programme and Geography 53 Agriculture: A Key Element for Facilitating Growth and Stability of Nigerian Economy Agriculture and Element and Facilitate and Growth and Stability and Nigeria and Economy 12

Figure 12 :
Figure 12: Area graph of the lingual agnostic IRS language interaction parity (source: authors).
[48]Architecture Implementation.Te designed lingual agnostic IRS was implemented using the component-based software engineering (CBSE) approach.CBSE is characterized by the selection, reuse, and integration of independently built software components[48].Te reused components can be built from scratch particularly when they
in Table4.Te term "overall" as used in Table

Table 4 :
LAIR retrieval performance with selected languages against the English language.